This survey of Iranian culture and history from the paleotihic to the present
spans ten million years of life on this ancient plateau. We move from Iran's
prehistory as revealed in the artifacts exavated by archeologists thought the
semi-legendary epic period described in the Zoroastrian texts and the Book of
Kings, in to the great historic empires of the Achaemenians, the Partians
historic empires of the Achaemenians, the Partians and the Sasanians. With the
advent of Islam, local dynasties emerge followed by the Safavid state with its
flowering of arts and architecture, the reigns of Nader Shah, the Zand princes,
the Qajar Kings, the Pahalavi Dynasty , and the Islamic Republic.
The Copper and Bronz Ages
At the Paleolithic or early Copper Age, we reach a stage when tradition
already exist. Figurines of burnt and painted clay and animal figures attain
high artistic quality. Toward the middle of the third millennium B.C., with the
increasing use of metal, pottery ceases to be the main field of artistic
expression. However, the oldest metal vessels adopted shapes that had developed
in pottery .
In the region of Lorestan, the remains of an ancient people are found, whose
most striking development is the technique of the working of metals,
particularly bronze. With the introduction of metal, weapons abound. We have
metalwork, in bronze and some in iron, including oxes with a variety of forms,
swords, daggers with decorative motifs, and theriomorphic ornaments. Predominant
among these are stone mace-heads of various shapes and carved animal head has
been immortalized in the Shahnameh. This if reputed to have been the weapon with
which the great hero-king Fereidun brought low the dragon-king Zahak.
Theriomorphic handles became a regular feature of horses, lions, spotted
leopards, dogs and some domesticated sheep and cattle, hawks and heraldic
eagles.
Many of the Lorestan bronzes were used as harness and trappings for horses
and chariots. Cheek-pieces of horse-bits, cast in the shapes of winged horses,
ibex, abound. Many of the horse-bits are of great beauty and horsemen on seals
and bronzes and some iron horse-bits attest to horse-breeding, and the bronze
products of the period distinctly present a people with a passion for
horsemanship.
Horse-breeding played an important role in Iranian supremacy from the time of
the Kassites. These Iranian Kassite tribes from the mountainous highlands of
Iran overran the plain of Mesopotamia in the eighteenth century B.C. and
established a dynasty that ruled Babylon down to the twelfth century B.C They
bred fine horses and were skillful in the metalsmith's craft, including
ironwork.
After the introduction of metal. Personal ornaments of gold, silver and
precious stones mounted in silver and gold became numerous in Iran. Tombs
contain earrings, torques, bracelets, necklaces, pendants, rings in silver,
copper bronze or gold. Iron bracelets are rather rare, but already in the second
millennium pearls imported from the Persian Gulf were used as ornaments.
In the Kordestan and Lorestan regions, as well as at other sites, copper,
bronze, gold and silver products are found in abundance. They exist in the sharp
of buckles, plaques and pins with ball- heads, disk-heads and winged or horned
animal heads, and sometimes depicting human figures that may have religious
significance. Stamp-seals with flat surfaces and negative designs as well as
roll-seals appear in this epoch.
Some of the designs and ornaments on these objects and ritual standards
depict religious themes, others represent cultic practices described in the
Avesta and still observed by the Zoroastrians. These include priests carrying
bundles of sacred twigs of barsom for the haomwa celebrations. Some iconographic
themes and decorative motifs suggest religious beliefs and concepts of a cosmic
nature.
More recent discoveries at Amlash, Deylaman and Marlik on the southwestern
shore of the Caspian Sea and at Hasanlu near Solduz in Kordestan have yielded
art objects of the highest quality decorated predominantly with animal forms.
Beautiful masterpieces of the potter's craft have been uncovered, including
exquisitely fashioned bulls, stags and bronze horsemen, all full of life and
with graceful lines.
Earrings decorated with clusters of miniature gold grapes and pomegranates
were found at Marlik and Amlash. Form royal tombs at Marlik a number of gold and
silver vessels, pieces of jewelry and weapons were excavated. A masterpiece of
the goldsmith's craft is the golden goblet from Hasanlu, whose entire surface is
adorned with mythological scenes, including human figures whose dress shows
close resemblance to both Amlash and Lorestan type.
The Beginning of History
According to the sacred writings of the Vesta, the later Pahlavi literature,
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh or The Book of Kings and other sources, Iranian history
begins with the semi-legendary dynasty of the Pishdadians, or those of the
" Primitive Low". Some of the kings and heroes of this dynasty have
their cognate divinities in India.
The first king was Kayumars, or the " Living Mortal" , under whose
beneficent rule men and beasts thrived. To his successor, King Hushang, the
discovery of fire was attributed. He was also the first man to use iron for
making implements, and he was credited with the construction of irrigation
works, He was succeeded by Tahmures, who vanquished the demons and introduced
writing and weaving.
King Jamshid, " the Resplendent Jam ", was the first to organize
society in to four classes: priests, warriors, husbandmen and artisans. During
his reing, gold, silver and precious stones were dug out of the earth and used
for making ornaments. Wine and sugar from cane were made for the first time.
King Jamshid was the first to construct roads and build ships. He also
established the festival of New Year's Day (Now-Ruz) on the vernal equinox,
which is still celebrated in Iran.
During his long reign , Jam received a divine warning that in three severe
winters heavy snowfalls would cover the earth and all creation would be
destroyed. But following the divine order, Jam constructed a var , or fortress,
into which he took the best of men, women, animals birds and plants to reproduce
and replenish the earth after the snows bad melted.
Jam's reign was remembered for its great prosperity . But finally, through
pride, Jam become a sinner, the "Kingly Glory" left him, and he was
defeated and killed by the Dragon-king.
A later king of this dynasty, Fereidun, in turn killed the Dragon-king.
Fereidun is also credited with the discovery of the art of medicine and healing.
In this period, sovereignty descend in the male line and kings ruled by
divine favor. Divine Majesty rested upon every king, and gave legitimacy to
sovereignty. This symbol of kingship became known under the designation of
Farr-e-Kiyan, or "Kiyanid Effulgence".
The Kiyanians
With the establishment of the Kiyanid Dynasty in northeastern Iran early in
the second millennium, we enter historical ground, although ancient heroes such
as Rostam and his family still continue to play their legendary role.
The kings of this dynasty bore the title of Kavi, or Key in modern Persian,
hence the name of the Kiyanid Dynasty. It was under one of the greatest kings of
his dynasty, the renowned Key-Khosrow, in the nineteenth century B.C., that
Iranian tribes were united. Key-Khosrow is remembered as an ideal king and his
court was a forerunner of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, though
stories of his life make him more a model for Perceval. He was also the
possessor of a cup (the Grail) in which all the marvels of the universe not only
of the " Seven Continents", but also of the planets and stars-could be
envisaged.
In his old age, Key-Khosrow, against the pleading of his knights, renounced
his crown. After bidding farewell to his knights and exhorting them to continue
their good works, he climbed. According to Zoroastrian tradition, he ascended to
heaven and will ultimately return in the company of the Savior Soshyans on the
day of Resurrection.
His successor, Key-Lohrasp, was also given to religious seclusion. He too
renounced the crown for a hermit's life and left the kingdom to his son,
Key-Goshtasp, Kavi Vishtaspa of the Avesta, the royal supporter of the prophet
Zoroaster or Zarathushtra.
Zoroaster
Two centuries of fermentation of religious thought and mystical seclusion and
vision had prepared the way for the fundamental religious reform that was
accomplished by the great prophet Zoroaster. Recent research intestern and
western historical traditions and astronomical calculations place Zoroasters
birth date as 1768 B.C. Iranian sources mention dynasties that ruled over
Mesopotamia as vassals of the Kiyanid kings. It may well be that movements of
the Hyksos westward to Egypt, and of the Kassites to Mesopotamia, were connected
with the religious reforms of Zoroaster in northeastern Iran.
Zoroaster's religious and ethical concepts have dominated religious thought
in Iran and elsewhere ever since. The concepts include monotheism with Ahura
Mazda, or " the Lord of Life and Thought or Wisdom" as the supreme God
and believed the Good Mind shall at last prevail and annihilate the Evil.
According to Zoroaster, God's will and His plans will be realized only
through the endeavors of men who have, by their own free choice, dedicated
themselves to Truth and Good Thought. Therefore, his message centers around the
idea of the "Kingdom of Ahura Mazda" or "The Good Kingdom" ,
the establishment of which shall be achieved not through sacrificial rites, as
had been practiced before, but through Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good
Words, and Good Deeds which will ensure man's salvation in this and in the life
to come. He who follows and practices Truth enters heaven which in Zoroaster's
concept is the condition of Best Thought and he who does not enters hell, which
is the Worst Existence.
The only outward religious rite that Zoroaster practiced was the symbol of
Ahura Mazda's light and purity, and a solemn communion meal, and adumbration of
thongs to come in heaven the blessed dwelling of the Good Mind and of
Righteousness.
The Kingdom of Ahura Mazda will be realized through Renovation with the help
of Saviors who will strengthen the Good Religion of Mazda. Aoroaster himself
prays that may he and those who have accepted his message be those that renovate
this existence.
The original teachings of Zoroaster have come down to us only in his
seventeen hymns, or Gathas, which are the most sacred part of the Avesta. The
rest of the extant Avestan texts are either later compositions or mainly ancient
pre-Zoroastrian pagan hymns and laws reintroduced with a Zoroastrian coloring.
The Medes in the West
The Iranian dynasties of the Kassites ruled western Iran and its extensions
in the Mesopotamian plains down to the beginning of the first millennium B.C.
Other Iranian tribes had also established their rule in western and northwestern
Iran. Abranch of the Medes settled in the west in the ninth century B.C.
Unification of Iranians in that region with Hamedan as capital was achieved in
the eighth century and an extensive kingdom was formed that grew strong enough
to capture Ninevah in the following century. Recent excavations are revealing
the art and civilization of this Median kingdom that lasted to the middle of the
sixth century B.C.
The Persians
Iranians in the southern province of Persia-old Parsa, modern Fars-had
already formed an independent local kingdom in the last decade of the eighth
century B.C. under Hakhamanesh, the eponymous ancestor of the Achaemenians .
They were, however, reduced to vassalage by the northern Medes until the middle
of the sixth century when Cyrus defeated the last Median king and unified the
Medes and Persians in one kingdom.
Cyrus the Great was destined to create the first world empire. He conquered Lydia, and the whole of western Asia Minor along with the Ionian cities were subjected. He then moved down the Tigris, subduing the vassal states of Babylon. He turned his attention to the east, annexing the eastern provinces to his empire, only to fall in battle against the northeastern Iranian Scythians.
His body was embalmed and taken to his home province of Fars where his tomb
now stands.
Cyrus is remembered as a benevolent conqueror and liberator. Iranian
religious beliefs which were basically ethical and universalistic produced a
tolerant attitude toward other religions with was exemplified in Cyrus treatment
of conquered peoples to an extent that the Bible describes him as the Lord's
Shepherd and Messiah.
On the death of Cyrus, his son and successor Cambyses undertook the conquest
of Egypt which was annexed to the empire.
At the same time the island of Cyprus was incorporated into the vast empire
that extended from the Libyan desert and the river Nile in Egypt to the river
Jaxartes in northeastern Iran.
With the passing of the great founder of the empire and the further
annexation of Egypt by his son Cambyses, the age of conquests had passed.
It was now time to organize and consolidate the vast empire and to maintain
its unity. This formidable task was undertaken successfully by Darius the Great.
Although Darius enlarged the empire by annexing the Indian satrapy in the
east, and by invading European territory in the west, first subduing the coast
of Thrace and then moving northward and crossing the Danube into Scythian
territory, his attention was primarily focused on establishing a new order and
creating an administrative and legal system for the empire.
At the same time the island of Cyprus was incorporated into the vast empire
that extended from the Libyan desert and the river Nile in Egypt to the river
Jaxartes in northeastern Iran.
With the passing of the great founder of the empire and the further
annexation of Egypt by his son Cambyses, the age of conquests had passed.
It was now time to organize and consolidate the vast empire and to maintain
its unity. This formidable task was undertaken successfully by Darius the Great.
Although Darius enlarged the empire by annexing the Indian satrapy in the
east, and by invading European territory in the west, first subduing the coast
of Thrace and then moving northward and crossing the Danube into Scythian
territory, his attention was primarily focused on establishing a news order and
creating an administrative and legal system for the empire.
On coming to the throne, Daruis found almost all of the provinces of the
empire in revolt, including his native Parsa. The story of these revolts and the
submission of the rebels was carved by the order of Darius on the rock
inscription of Behistun near Kermanshah . His ability and skill is proclaimed by
the King of King in an inscription at Naqsh-e-Rostam.
With the passing of Darius, his son and successor Xerxes, who did not have
the military and administrative abilities of his predecessor, embarked on a
policy of alienating the subject peoples.
His unsuccessful attempt to invade and subdue the Greek mainland weakened the
empire. Under the later Achaemenids, signs of decadence appeared. Revolts in the
provinces shattered the empire, and with the domination of Alexander of Macedon
in Mesopotamia, the Achaemenian Empire finally collapsed.
"Tourism Police" to Assure Tourists' Safety
With the establishment of a group called "Tourism Police ", the
travel agencies hosting foreign tours can assure the safety and comfort of
foreign tourists and solve the existing problems, Manager of Recreational
Affairs of Iran's Tourism Organization, Noureddin Nasri, told Gardeshgary's
reporter.
Referring to the activities of the residential centers of the organization,
he said that considering the amounts paid by tourists, the services offered are
more than what is to be expected. Iran Tourism Organization has taken delivery
of many hotels previously controlled by non-tourism organizations, but they are
severely in need of basic refurbishment, he added.
Iran Tourism Revenues Up
Iran's revenue from tourism industry amounted to $350m in the last Iranian
year ending March 1998. The figure has increased twice as much this year.
Mohammad Moezoddin, Tourism Deputy of Culture and Islamic Guidance Ministry,
said that the initiative of Dialogue among Civilizations suggested by President
Mohammad Khatami has provided has Iran with a better share of the tourism
industry . Meanwhile, long-term plans and considerable investments in the
industry will turn Iran into one of the focal points for cultural tourism.
At present, world tourism industry is experiencing an average annual growth
of five percent, while in Iran the figure is 30 percent, he added.
Addressing a question on the Iran's share in the tourism industry of the
country, Moezeddin said that the private sector offers main part of the
services.
Following the privatization policy undertaken by the government within the
country's second 5-year development plan, most hotels will be ceded to the
cooperative sector, he added.
Moezeddin said that currently there are many countries keen on investment in
Iran's tourism industry. European and Muslim countries are ready to invest in
the south and north of the country respectively, said Moezeddin.
Omar Khayam; Understanding of Iran
The city of Neishbour in the northeast province of Khorasan was once the
largest cultural centre of ancient Iran and can attract a large number of
tourists owing to its tourist attractions, Fereidoun Jonaidy, an Iranian
researcher, said. However, due to lack of a suitable hotel, it has remained
unexplored for most of the tourists.
Nieshabour hosts such prominet tourist attractions as the toms of great
Persian poets Omar Khayam and Farideddin Attar.
Many tourists from all over the world, especially from the neighboring
countries, are interested in visiting Iran's historical monuments, Jonaidy said.
Creativity and oferring suitable facilities in tourism industry are the only way
to attract such tourisn, he said.
He also believes that getting tourists to visit the agricultural rituals in
rice planting, harvest and fruit picking seasons may be the best possible
measure as they have attractive sceneries for them.
Jamshidieh Complex Recieves Tourists
Jamshidieh Tourism and Recreation Complex in northern Tehran includes spectacular locations in its different parts, each representing a certain region of Iran and its culture and customs, said Mahdi Shayan, managing director of Chaharsough Shahr Institute which operates the complex.
He went on to say that the hosts in Jamshidieh are dressed in local costumes,
they serve local cuisine, and Iranian traditional music can be heard in the
complex in order to introduce different cultures existing throughout the
country.
At Present, Jamshideih Complex includes the regions of Kordestan, Azerbaijan,
Khazar (Caspian coast), and Zagros (the towering north-south mountain range), he
added.
The institute distributes brochures, cards, films, photographs, and
handicrafts of each region to attract more tourists, said Shayan.
Isfahan, Istanbul Become Sister Cities
Deputy Interior Minister of Turkey, Yahya Gour, announced that a pact is
going to be signed between the two historical cities of Tehran and Istanbul to
become sister cities.
Visiting the historical monuments of Isfahan, he termed the two cities as
cradles of Islamic civilization, and added that there are many similarities
between the two cities.
Isfahan has already signed such a pact with Zhian, Florance, and Kualalampur.
The same pact will be signed with Istanbul, and Paris.
Iran Safest Country, Austrian Archeological
An Austrian archeologist who visited Iran this year said that Iran is the
safest country for visiting and making tourism and archeological research.
He believes that availability of information for tourists, architecture,
beautiful nature, and Iranian hospitality are the most important tourist
attractions of Iran.
He also visited the world's oldest aquaduct in Gonabad.
He had come to Iran to visit and pripare a report on ancient relics of
different parts of the country, as he noted.
More Tourists Enter Iran Across Baajgiran Broder
The number of tourists entered the country over the Baajgiran border in the
northeast province of Khorasan last month has increased by 50 percent comparing
to the previous months.
Mr. Kashian, the governor of the region, said that some 15,000 tourists have
passed through the border during last month, and over 200 border pass permits
have been issued by now.
Ancient Cemetery Discovered In Kerman
Manager of Cultural Heritage Organization of Kerman Province, south of Iran announced that a cemetery, belonging to the 3rd millenium BC, has been discovered in Rameshk region of Kahnouj in an excavation by the archeological team of the organization.
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